From Conquest to Dynasty - The Rise and Legacy of Kublai Khan
Upon the death of Möngke, the fourth Mongol great khan, in 1259, his brother Kublai had no doubt as to his rightful successor. While Möngke had been extending Mongol dominion into Syria in the far west, Kublai had already proven himself as a skilled general by conquering vast territories, including parts of southwestern China and what is now Vietnam. However, despite Kublai’s demonstrated capabilities, there were rival claims to authority.
Kublai received word that his brother Arigböge also aspired to declare himself emperor. At the age of 45, Kublai swiftly made his way to his residence at Shangdu (later immortalized as Xanadu in Samuel Taylor Coleridge’s famous poem “Kubla Khan”) to deliberate on his next course of action.
Recognizing the necessity of both diplomatic finesse and military prowess to govern the extensive Mongol domains stretching from northern China through Persia to Russia, Kublai faced the challenge posed by Arigböge. In response, he opted for a significant ritual to solidify his claim to the throne. After consulting his advisers, Kublai decided to legitimize his rule by consulting the I Ching, an ancient Chinese divination system with ties to Confucianism and Taoism. Through this solemn ceremony, Kublai sought assurance of success on the path he chose to pursue.
Kublai’s decision to embrace a Chinese tradition rather than a Mongol one underscored a persistent dilemma throughout his life. He was motivated by the unrealized ambition of his grandfather, the formidable conqueror Genghis Khan, who aspired to unite all of China under Mongol rule. Kublai understood that conquering China was one challenge, but effectively governing it presented another. It demanded a delicate balance of appealing to the newly subjugated Chinese populace while upholding Mongol loyalty.
The I Ching ritual, with its blend of reverence and political significance, proved fruitful: Kublai ascended to power as Kublai Khan, vanquished Arigböge four years later, and emerged as the sole ruler of the world’s largest contiguous land empire, spanning from the Pacific Ocean to the Black Sea.
Kublai Khan’s Rise to Power
In 1206, Genghis Khan united the Mongol tribes and redirected their ambitions far beyond their homeland. By the time of Genghis’s death in 1227, they had nearly conquered the Jin dynasty of northern China and vast expanses of Central Asia.
The title of “khan,” often denoted as “khagan,” meaning “ruler” or “great khan,” passed from Genghis to his son Ögödei, and then to his grandson Güyük, before Möngke succeeded in 1251. Kublai, Möngke’s brother, born in 1215, was the son of Tolui and Sorghaghtani, a member of an Eastern Christian sect. Sorghaghtani played a pivotal role in ensuring Möngke’s succession and shaping Kublai’s upbringing.
Under Sorghaghtani’s guidance, Kublai received instruction in Mongol traditions while also being exposed to other faiths and cultures, including Islam and Chinese traditions. This multicultural education would later inform his approach to governance.
As a military leader, Kublai demonstrated his prowess during Möngke’s territorial expansions, employing the brutal methods typical of Mongol conquests.
Challenges and Triumphs
Upon his proclamation as khagan in 1260, Kublai confronted Arigböge’s rival claim to the throne before resuming military campaigns. Internal tensions began to threaten the unity of the Mongol empire, leading to its fragmentation into sub-khanates.
After defeating Arigböge in 1264, Kublai resumed his campaigns against the Southern Song dynasty in China. Despite facing formidable resistance from the Song, Kublai’s perseverance led to their eventual defeat in 1279, marking the unification of China under Mongol rule.
Establishing a New Dynasty
As Kublai expanded his control over China, he declared the establishment of a new dynasty, the Yuan, in 1271. Recognizing the importance of embracing Chinese culture, Kublai adopted Chinese customs, governance practices, and attire. He relocated the capital to Dadu (present-day Beijing) to centralize imperial power within Chinese territory.
Kublai’s reign saw the integration of foreign advisers into his administration, including the famous traveler Marco Polo. However, tensions persisted between the Mongol elite and the Chinese populace, exacerbating social and political divisions within the Yuan dynasty.
Legacy and Decline
Kublai nominated his grandson Temür as his successor before his death in 1294. Despite his accomplishments in unifying China and establishing the Yuan dynasty, Kublai’s reliance on Chinese customs alienated Mongol aristocrats, contributing to the destabilization of Mongol rule. Though the Yuan dynasty enjoyed relative stability and prosperity during Kublai’s reign, it ultimately succumbed to internal strife and external pressures within a century of his death.
Marco Polo's Journey that Defined an Age of Exploration
The renowned explorer Marco Polo is known for many achievements, but perhaps his greatest is the compilation of one of the world’s earliest and most successful travel accounts. Published around 1300, his book documents his adventures during a 24-year journey from Venice to Asia and back.
Polo himself didn’t pen down his experiences. Following his return to Venice in 1295, he found himself imprisoned by the Genoese, adversaries of the Venetians. During his captivity, he met Rusticiano, a fellow prisoner and writer from Pisa, to whom he recounted his tales. Rusticiano transcribed them into a medieval language known as Franco-Italian, and the accounts were subsequently published.
Although the original manuscript is lost, over 100 illuminated copies from the Middle Ages have survived. These copies, while often exquisitely crafted, exhibit significant variations. The work became known as “Il Milione”, possibly derived from one of Polo’s nicknames. In English, it’s often referred to as “The Travels of Marco Polo.”
The Bodleian Library in Oxford, England, houses one of the earliest versions of the book, dating back to around 1400. Lavishly illustrated, this copy is regarded by many scholars as authoritative. It narrates the journey starting from 1271 of a trio of Venetians through remarkable lands, culminating in an audience with the Mongolian emperor, Kublai Khan.
The places Polo and his companions visited—such as Hormuz, Balkh, and Kashgar—became enduring features of Europeans’ geographical knowledge. Polo’s vivid descriptions brought these distant locales to life, offering insights into both extraordinary marvels and mundane commercial activities.
Despite being published centuries before the advent of the printing press, Polo’s book rapidly gained popularity, spreading across the Italian Peninsula within months. It rekindled Europe’s interest in international trade and exploration, influencing the age of discovery that followed two centuries later.
During his lifetime, Europe’s gaze turned eastward due to the formidable Mongol empire’s expansion. By the time of Polo’s journey, the empire had reached its zenith, stretching from Hungary in the west to the Pacific shores in the east.
Originating from disparate tribes, the Mongols unified under Genghis Khan’s leadership, expanding their dominion across vast territories. Their conquests extended from China and Central Asia to parts of Europe, disrupting established powers and trade routes.
Polo’s Venetian background positioned him within a trading hub primed for expansion into the East. His family had already begun forging connections in the region, meeting with the Mongol Khan during their initial travels in 1261. Thus, Polo’s own journey was part of a broader tradition of Venetian exploration and trade expansion.