Capturing the Spirit of the Asia-Africa Conference
Paul Tedjasurja, born on 19 August 1930 in Surabaya, was a dedicated photographer whose contribution to recording one of the most monumental events in Asian and African history, the Asia-Africa Conference in 1955, is unequalled.
He began his photography career in Bandung in 1949, two years after moving, working as a freelance photojournalist for “Gembira” magazine and the “Preanger Foto” agency. His extraordinary artistic abilities were recognised, resulting in contributions to Pikiran Rakjat in 1953.
The Bandung Conference, also known as the Asia-Africa Conference, took place from April 18 to 24, 1955, in Bandung, Indonesia, and was the first international gathering of newly independent Asian and African states. Its goals were to promote international peace and cooperation while condemning colonialism and neocolonialism, providing the groundwork for the Non-Alignment Movement.
Tedjasurja, a 25-year-old freelance photographer, captured around 300 photographs of this historic occasion. He immortalised various moments with his Leica III F camera, a gift from his prospective father-in-law, supplemented by an 8-kilogram flash, additional lighting apparatus, and numerous rolls of black and white film, including the arrival of foreign delegates at Husein Sastranegara Airport, conference proceedings at Merdeka Building, banquets, and the exuberance of bystanders.
Unfortunately, not all of Tedjasurja’s photographic collection survived. A government official borrowed photographs and negatives from the 1955 Asia-Africa Conference but neglected to return them, so their whereabouts are unknown to this day.
Despite this setback, Tedjasurja’s collaborators digitally conserved 63 of his images for the 50th anniversary of the Asia-Africa Conference in April of 2005. These photographs were later included in the book “Bandung 1955: Moments of the Asian African Conference,” which commemorated the conference’s 60th anniversary in April 2015.
Unfortunately, Paul Tedjasurja died on March 27, 2020. His essential contributions to recording the Asia-Africa Conference demonstrate his photographic expertise and passion. His legacy continues to illuminate this momentous event, allowing future generations to better comprehend and appreciate this critical chapter in Asian and African history.
The Audacious Reign of Ratu Kalinyamat
Queen Kalinyamat, also known as Ratna Kencana, was a formidable queen in the 16th century, ruling the Javanese Islamic empire of Kalinyamat and Jepara. Her reign, which lasted from around 1549 to 1579, was distinguished by daring naval expeditions against Portuguese Malacca.
Born into royalty, she was the daughter of Sultan Trenggana of Demak and the wife of Sultan Hadlirin. Her accession to the kingdom followed the assassination of her brother, Sunan Prawoto, and her husband by Arya Penangsang. Despite the unfortunate circumstances, Ratu Kalinyamat proved to be a capable and courageous leader.
Ratu Kalinyamat’s reign was distinguished by her overseas campaigns in 1550 and 1574 against the Portuguese in Malacca. Her bravery and strategic brilliance earned her the acclaim of the Portuguese historical record “Da Asia,” which referred to her as ‘the Queen of Jepara,’ a wealthy woman with much influence.
However, her rule was not without dispute. According to several historical records, her character was perceived positively as well as negatively. While she was seen as a courageous and forceful leader, she was also connected with qualities of sensuality and ambition.
Despite the controversy, Queen Kalinyamat’s legacy is undeniable. Joko Widodo posthumously gave her the title of National Hero of Indonesia on November 10, 2023. This accolade reflected her substantial achievements to her kingdom and people.
However, the decision to recognize her as a national hero was not without criticism. Some detractors say that her vigorous attacks against the Portuguese were motivated by personal ambition rather than a desire to safeguard her people. Despite these concerns, many people still see Queen Kalinyamat as a symbol of women’s independence.
The narrative of Queen Kalinyamat is a complicated tapestry of power, ambition, and controversy. Her rule had an everlasting impact on the history of Jepara and the surrounding region. Today, she is remembered as both a queen and a national hero, demonstrating her enduring legacy.
Whether viewed as a heroine or a controversial character, Queen Kalinyamat was undeniably a woman of immense influence and authority. Her story serves as a reminder of history’s complex and often contentious character, where heroes are not always perfect and controversy may occasionally eclipse accomplishment.
Tracing the Path of Rembrandt's Night Watch
In the heart of Amsterdam’s Rijksmuseum lies a masterpiece that has captivated audiences for centuries – Rembrandt van Rijn’s iconic painting, “Night Watch.” This monumental work of art, completed in 1642 during the Dutch Golden Age, continues to bewitch viewers with its enigmatic composition and unparalleled mastery. Delving into the historical and cultural trails surrounding this revered painting unveils a tapestry of intrigue, illuminating the rich heritage of both Rembrandt and the vibrant city that birthed him.
A Glimpse into the Past
The Dutch Golden Age, spanning the 17th century, marked a pinnacle of economic prosperity, artistic innovation, and cultural flourishing in the Netherlands. Amsterdam emerged as a bustling hub of commerce, fueled by maritime trade and colonial expansion. It was within this dynamic milieu that Rembrandt, hailed as one of the greatest painters in European history, created his magnum opus, “Night Watch.”
Commissioned by Captain Frans Banning Cocq and his militia company, the painting originally bore the title “The Company of Captain Frans Banning Cocq and Lieutenant Willem van Ruytenburch.” However, its darkened varnish over the centuries led to its misleading moniker, “Night Watch.” Despite its misnomer, the painting’s allure lies not only in its aesthetic brilliance but also in the vivid narrative it conveys.
Unraveling the Composition
At first glance, “Night Watch” exudes a sense of dynamism and theatricality, as if frozen in a moment of frenetic action. Rembrandt’s masterful use of chiaroscuro, a technique of contrasting light and shadow, imbues the scene with an atmospheric intensity, drawing the viewer into its midst. The central figures of Captain Cocq and Lieutenant van Ruytenburch command attention, their faces illuminated amidst the swirling chaos of musketeers and officers.
Yet, upon closer inspection, subtle details emerge, revealing layers of symbolism and storytelling woven into the fabric of the painting. The interplay of light and shadow not only accentuates the protagonists but also shrouds certain figures in obscurity, inviting speculation about their identities and motives. Rembrandt’s meticulous attention to detail, from the intricate ruffles of clothing to the gleam of weaponry, breathes life into each individual depicted, evoking a palpable sense of tension and anticipation.
Cultural Significance
“Night Watch” transcends its historical context to become a timeless emblem of Dutch identity and resilience. In the aftermath of the Eighty Years’ War against Spanish rule, the Dutch Republic emerged as a beacon of republican values and civic pride. Captain Cocq’s militia company, depicted in the painting, symbolizes the spirit of communal solidarity and civic duty that defined Dutch society during this period.
Moreover, “Night Watch” serves as a testament to Rembrandt’s unparalleled genius and innovative spirit. His bold departure from conventional portraiture and his bold experimentation with light and composition revolutionized the artistic landscape of the Dutch Golden Age, leaving an indelible mark on subsequent generations of artists.
The Journey Continues
As visitors flock to the Rijksmuseum to behold “Night Watch” in all its glory, the painting continues to spark curiosity and wonder, inviting audiences to embark on a journey through time and space. From the bustling streets of 17th-century Amsterdam to the hallowed halls of a modern museum, Rembrandt’s masterpiece serves as a bridge between past and present, uniting generations in a shared appreciation of artistic excellence and cultural heritage.
In the end, “Night Watch” transcends its status as a mere painting to become a cultural touchstone, a beacon of inspiration that illuminates the human experience with its timeless beauty and profound depth. In the words of Rembrandt himself, “Choose only one master—Nature.” And indeed, in “Night Watch,” nature, history, and art converge in a symphony of brilliance that continues to resonate with audiences around the world.
Unraveling the Impact of Daendels' Great Post Road in Dutch Colonial Indonesia
In the annals of colonial history, few endeavors have left as profound an impact on the landscape and culture of a nation as Daendels’ Great Post Road in Dutch Colonial Indonesia. Built during the early 19th century under the leadership of Herman Willem Daendels, Governor-General of the Dutch East Indies, this monumental feat of engineering forever altered the fabric of the Indonesian archipelago, leaving behind a legacy that continues to shape the region to this day.
Stretching over a thousand kilometers from the capital of Batavia (modern-day Jakarta) to the strategic port city of Anyer, Daendels’ Great Post Road was envisioned as a vital artery of transportation and communication, linking the far-flung corners of the Dutch East Indies with unprecedented efficiency. Carved through dense jungles, rugged mountains, and sprawling rice paddies, the road served as a lifeline for colonial administrators, military expeditions, and commercial enterprises, facilitating the flow of goods, troops, and information across the vast expanse of the archipelago.
Yet, the impact of Daendels’ Great Post Road extended far beyond its utilitarian function, shaping the social, economic, and cultural landscape of colonial Indonesia in profound ways. Along its winding path, new settlements emerged, fueled by the promise of economic opportunity and administrative control. Towns and villages sprung up along the roadside, their fortunes tied inexorably to the ebb and flow of colonial power and commerce.
But perhaps the most enduring legacy of Daendels’ Great Post Road lies in its impact on the indigenous peoples of Indonesia. As the road cut through traditional territories and ancient trade routes, it brought with it waves of cultural exchange, assimilation, and resistance. Indigenous communities were forced to adapt to the encroaching presence of colonial authority, grappling with the imposition of new laws, languages, and customs that threatened to erode their ancestral way of life.
Yet, amidst the upheaval and disruption wrought by Daendels’ Great Post Road, traces of indigenous culture endured, weaving themselves into the fabric of colonial society and leaving an indelible mark on the landscape. From the vibrant markets of Java to the verdant rice terraces of Sumatra, the road became a conduit for the exchange of ideas, traditions, and beliefs, fostering a rich tapestry of diversity that continues to define modern Indonesia.
The construction of the Great Post Road was not without its challenges and controversies. Forced labor was employed in its construction, with thousands of Javanese forced into service under grueling conditions. The toll on human lives and the environment was significant, with forests cleared, rivers diverted, and villages displaced to make way for the road. Despite these hardships, the road ultimately became a symbol of Dutch colonial ambition and power, a testament to the ability of colonial administrators to impose their will upon the land and its people.
Today, as travelers traverse the remnants of Daendels’ Great Post Road, they are greeted by a landscape that bears witness to the complex interplay of history and culture that shaped the nation. From the crumbling ruins of colonial forts to the bustling cities that have risen in their wake, the road serves as a tangible reminder of Indonesia’s colonial past and its enduring legacy in the present day.
But beyond its historical significance, Daendels’ Great Post Road offers travelers a glimpse into the resilience and ingenuity of the Indonesian people, who have transformed adversity into opportunity and forged a nation that is as diverse as it is dynamic. As they journey along its storied path, travelers are invited to unravel the layers of history and culture that lie hidden beneath the surface, discovering the rich tapestry of Indonesia’s past and the promise of its future.
From Conquest to Dynasty - The Rise and Legacy of Kublai Khan
Upon the death of Möngke, the fourth Mongol great khan, in 1259, his brother Kublai had no doubt as to his rightful successor. While Möngke had been extending Mongol dominion into Syria in the far west, Kublai had already proven himself as a skilled general by conquering vast territories, including parts of southwestern China and what is now Vietnam. However, despite Kublai’s demonstrated capabilities, there were rival claims to authority.
Kublai received word that his brother Arigböge also aspired to declare himself emperor. At the age of 45, Kublai swiftly made his way to his residence at Shangdu (later immortalized as Xanadu in Samuel Taylor Coleridge’s famous poem “Kubla Khan”) to deliberate on his next course of action.
Recognizing the necessity of both diplomatic finesse and military prowess to govern the extensive Mongol domains stretching from northern China through Persia to Russia, Kublai faced the challenge posed by Arigböge. In response, he opted for a significant ritual to solidify his claim to the throne. After consulting his advisers, Kublai decided to legitimize his rule by consulting the I Ching, an ancient Chinese divination system with ties to Confucianism and Taoism. Through this solemn ceremony, Kublai sought assurance of success on the path he chose to pursue.
Kublai’s decision to embrace a Chinese tradition rather than a Mongol one underscored a persistent dilemma throughout his life. He was motivated by the unrealized ambition of his grandfather, the formidable conqueror Genghis Khan, who aspired to unite all of China under Mongol rule. Kublai understood that conquering China was one challenge, but effectively governing it presented another. It demanded a delicate balance of appealing to the newly subjugated Chinese populace while upholding Mongol loyalty.
The I Ching ritual, with its blend of reverence and political significance, proved fruitful: Kublai ascended to power as Kublai Khan, vanquished Arigböge four years later, and emerged as the sole ruler of the world’s largest contiguous land empire, spanning from the Pacific Ocean to the Black Sea.
Kublai Khan’s Rise to Power
In 1206, Genghis Khan united the Mongol tribes and redirected their ambitions far beyond their homeland. By the time of Genghis’s death in 1227, they had nearly conquered the Jin dynasty of northern China and vast expanses of Central Asia.
The title of “khan,” often denoted as “khagan,” meaning “ruler” or “great khan,” passed from Genghis to his son Ögödei, and then to his grandson Güyük, before Möngke succeeded in 1251. Kublai, Möngke’s brother, born in 1215, was the son of Tolui and Sorghaghtani, a member of an Eastern Christian sect. Sorghaghtani played a pivotal role in ensuring Möngke’s succession and shaping Kublai’s upbringing.
Under Sorghaghtani’s guidance, Kublai received instruction in Mongol traditions while also being exposed to other faiths and cultures, including Islam and Chinese traditions. This multicultural education would later inform his approach to governance.
As a military leader, Kublai demonstrated his prowess during Möngke’s territorial expansions, employing the brutal methods typical of Mongol conquests.
Challenges and Triumphs
Upon his proclamation as khagan in 1260, Kublai confronted Arigböge’s rival claim to the throne before resuming military campaigns. Internal tensions began to threaten the unity of the Mongol empire, leading to its fragmentation into sub-khanates.
After defeating Arigböge in 1264, Kublai resumed his campaigns against the Southern Song dynasty in China. Despite facing formidable resistance from the Song, Kublai’s perseverance led to their eventual defeat in 1279, marking the unification of China under Mongol rule.
Establishing a New Dynasty
As Kublai expanded his control over China, he declared the establishment of a new dynasty, the Yuan, in 1271. Recognizing the importance of embracing Chinese culture, Kublai adopted Chinese customs, governance practices, and attire. He relocated the capital to Dadu (present-day Beijing) to centralize imperial power within Chinese territory.
Kublai’s reign saw the integration of foreign advisers into his administration, including the famous traveler Marco Polo. However, tensions persisted between the Mongol elite and the Chinese populace, exacerbating social and political divisions within the Yuan dynasty.
Legacy and Decline
Kublai nominated his grandson Temür as his successor before his death in 1294. Despite his accomplishments in unifying China and establishing the Yuan dynasty, Kublai’s reliance on Chinese customs alienated Mongol aristocrats, contributing to the destabilization of Mongol rule. Though the Yuan dynasty enjoyed relative stability and prosperity during Kublai’s reign, it ultimately succumbed to internal strife and external pressures within a century of his death.
Marco Polo's Journey that Defined an Age of Exploration
The renowned explorer Marco Polo is known for many achievements, but perhaps his greatest is the compilation of one of the world’s earliest and most successful travel accounts. Published around 1300, his book documents his adventures during a 24-year journey from Venice to Asia and back.
Polo himself didn’t pen down his experiences. Following his return to Venice in 1295, he found himself imprisoned by the Genoese, adversaries of the Venetians. During his captivity, he met Rusticiano, a fellow prisoner and writer from Pisa, to whom he recounted his tales. Rusticiano transcribed them into a medieval language known as Franco-Italian, and the accounts were subsequently published.
Although the original manuscript is lost, over 100 illuminated copies from the Middle Ages have survived. These copies, while often exquisitely crafted, exhibit significant variations. The work became known as “Il Milione”, possibly derived from one of Polo’s nicknames. In English, it’s often referred to as “The Travels of Marco Polo.”
The Bodleian Library in Oxford, England, houses one of the earliest versions of the book, dating back to around 1400. Lavishly illustrated, this copy is regarded by many scholars as authoritative. It narrates the journey starting from 1271 of a trio of Venetians through remarkable lands, culminating in an audience with the Mongolian emperor, Kublai Khan.
The places Polo and his companions visited—such as Hormuz, Balkh, and Kashgar—became enduring features of Europeans’ geographical knowledge. Polo’s vivid descriptions brought these distant locales to life, offering insights into both extraordinary marvels and mundane commercial activities.
Despite being published centuries before the advent of the printing press, Polo’s book rapidly gained popularity, spreading across the Italian Peninsula within months. It rekindled Europe’s interest in international trade and exploration, influencing the age of discovery that followed two centuries later.
During his lifetime, Europe’s gaze turned eastward due to the formidable Mongol empire’s expansion. By the time of Polo’s journey, the empire had reached its zenith, stretching from Hungary in the west to the Pacific shores in the east.
Originating from disparate tribes, the Mongols unified under Genghis Khan’s leadership, expanding their dominion across vast territories. Their conquests extended from China and Central Asia to parts of Europe, disrupting established powers and trade routes.
Polo’s Venetian background positioned him within a trading hub primed for expansion into the East. His family had already begun forging connections in the region, meeting with the Mongol Khan during their initial travels in 1261. Thus, Polo’s own journey was part of a broader tradition of Venetian exploration and trade expansion.